What does “notion” mean?

“notion” means an idea or belief, often one that is vague or unproven. Pronounced /ˈnoʊʃən/. Close synonyms: idea, belief, assumption. For example: The lecture challenged the popular notion that intelligence is fixed at birth.

What does “concept” mean?

“concept” means a general idea used to explain or organize thinking. Pronounced /ˈkɑnˌsɛpt/. Close synonyms: idea, notion, principle. For example: Students must master the concept of supply before the model makes any sense.

What does “conceptual” mean?

“conceptual” means relating to ideas rather than to facts or practical matters. Pronounced /kənˈsɛptʃuəl/. It is formal. Close synonyms: theoretical, abstract, ideas-based. For example: Her criticism is conceptual rather than practical: she rejects the model's basic assumptions.

What does “paradigm” mean?

“paradigm” means the set of ideas and methods accepted in a field at one time. Pronounced /ˈpærəˌdaɪm/. It is formal. Close synonyms: model, framework, school of thought. For example: The paradigm shifted only when geologists finally accepted that continents move.

What does “framework” mean?

“framework” means a set of ideas or rules used to organize thinking about something. Pronounced /ˈfreɪmˌwɜrk/. Close synonyms: structure, model, system. For example: The chapter offers a framework for comparing voting systems across several democracies.

What does “criterion” mean?

“criterion” means a standard used to judge or decide something. Pronounced /kraɪˈtɪriən/. It is formal. Close synonyms: standard, measure, test. For example: Cost was only one criterion; the committee also weighed long-term environmental damage.

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Academic English — Core Word List Official

The academic vocabulary that recurs in every subject, defined in English. Words drawn from the general academic register rather than one field, each with an English definition, IPA, synonyms and a usage note on the word family and the pattern a paper expects.

CEFR B2–C1 — Upper Intermediate to Advanced

At this level you can follow news, debate topics, write essays. Vocabulary: ~4,000–6,000 words (cumulative).

Words in this deck

What does “notion” mean?: “notion” means an idea or belief, often one that is vague or unproven. Pronounced /ˈnoʊʃən/. Close synonyms: idea, belief, assumption. For example: The lecture challenged the popular notion that intelligence is fixed at birth.
What does “concept” mean?: “concept” means a general idea used to explain or organize thinking. Pronounced /ˈkɑnˌsɛpt/. Close synonyms: idea, notion, principle. For example: Students must master the concept of supply before the model makes any sense.
What does “conceptual” mean?: “conceptual” means relating to ideas rather than to facts or practical matters. Pronounced /kənˈsɛptʃuəl/. It is formal. Close synonyms: theoretical, abstract, ideas-based. For example: Her criticism is conceptual rather than practical: she rejects the model's basic assumptions.
What does “paradigm” mean?: “paradigm” means the set of ideas and methods accepted in a field at one time. Pronounced /ˈpærəˌdaɪm/. It is formal. Close synonyms: model, framework, school of thought. For example: The paradigm shifted only when geologists finally accepted that continents move.
What does “framework” mean?: “framework” means a set of ideas or rules used to organize thinking about something. Pronounced /ˈfreɪmˌwɜrk/. Close synonyms: structure, model, system. For example: The chapter offers a framework for comparing voting systems across several democracies.
What does “criterion” mean?: “criterion” means a standard used to judge or decide something. Pronounced /kraɪˈtɪriən/. It is formal. Close synonyms: standard, measure, test. For example: Cost was only one criterion; the committee also weighed long-term environmental damage.

English · definitions in English 229 words ~23 days at 10 words/day 0 downloads B2 C1

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Word List — click grammar notes to expand

Word	Translation	Example
notionB2neutral /ˈnoʊʃən/ an idea or belief, often one that is vague or unproven Synonyms: idea, belief, assumption	an idea; a loose belief	The lecture challenged the popular notion that intelligence is fixed at birth.
Writers reach for notion when they want distance from the idea: the notion that X usually signals doubt about X. It takes a that-clause or of plus a noun. Have no notion is a separate idiom meaning have no knowledge at all.
conceptB2neutral /ˈkɑnˌsɛpt/ a general idea used to explain or organize thinking Synonyms: idea, notion, principle	a general idea	Students must master the concept of supply before the model makes any sense.
Concept 'of' something is the frame. The adjective is conceptual and the stress moves to the second syllable, /kənˈsɛptʃuəl/. A concept is worked out and taught, while a notion can be vague and personal, so textbooks explain concepts rather than notions.
conceptualC1formal /kənˈsɛptʃuəl/ relating to ideas rather than to facts or practical matters Synonyms: theoretical, abstract, ideas-based	to do with ideas	Her criticism is conceptual rather than practical: she rejects the model's basic assumptions.
Pairs constantly with framework, model and shift; a conceptual framework is the set of ideas a study is built on. Keep it for thinking itself: a conceptual problem is a flaw in the reasoning, while a practical problem is a flaw in the doing.
paradigmC1formal /ˈpærəˌdaɪm/ the set of ideas and methods accepted in a field at one time Synonyms: model, framework, school of thought	an accepted model of thinking	The paradigm shifted only when geologists finally accepted that continents move.
Paradigm shift is the standard phrase and means a change in how a whole field thinks, so it is far too large a word for an ordinary change of plan. The g is silent in the noun but sounded in paradigmatic, /ˌpærədɪɡˈmætɪk/.
frameworkB2neutral /ˈfreɪmˌwɜrk/ a set of ideas or rules used to organize thinking about something Synonyms: structure, model, system	an organizing set of ideas	The chapter offers a framework for comparing voting systems across several democracies.
A framework organizes questions, while a theory makes claims that can be tested, so do not offer one as the other. Theoretical, conceptual, legal and regulatory are its commonest partners, and the frames are within a framework and a framework for doing something.
criterionB2formal /kraɪˈtɪriən/ a standard used to judge or decide something Synonyms: standard, measure, test	a standard for judging	Cost was only one criterion; the committee also weighed long-term environmental damage.
The plural is criteria, /kraɪˈtɪriə/, and one criteria is a visible error in academic writing: the criteria are, never the criteria is. Something meets a criterion or fails to meet it, and criteria are set, applied and relaxed.
categoryB2neutral /ˈkætəˌɡɔri/ a group of things that share a quality and are treated together Synonyms: class, group, type	a group; a class	Each response was placed in one of four categories before the counting began.
Things fall into or belong to a category, and you place them in one. Watch the adjective: categorical means absolute rather than sorted, so a categorical denial admits nothing and has nothing to do with grouping.
to categorizeB2neutral /ˈkætəɡəˌraɪz/ to put things into groups according to a shared quality Synonyms: classify, group, sort	sort into groups	Researchers categorized the answers as supportive, hostile, or too unclear to score.
Categorize X as Y, or categorize X into groups; categorize X to Y is wrong. The noun is categorization, /ˌkætəɡərəˈzeɪʃən/. Classify is the close twin and sounds a little more scientific, especially about plants and animals.
distinctionB2neutral /dɪˈstɪŋkʃən/ a clear difference between two things Synonyms: difference, contrast, division	a clear difference	The author draws a careful distinction between poverty and inequality throughout the book.
You draw or make a distinction between two things; you do not do one. Sharp, useful and blurred are the adjectives that fit. A second sense is honor, as in graduating with distinction, so context has to settle which is meant.
to distinguishB2neutral /dɪˈstɪŋɡwɪʃ/ to see or show how one thing differs from another Synonyms: tell apart, differentiate, separate	tell apart; recognize	Good readers distinguish the writer's opinion from the evidence offered to support it.
Distinguish X 'from' Y, or distinguish 'between' X and Y; both are standard and nothing else is. The past participle used as an adjective means respected, not separated, so a distinguished professor is eminent rather than merely identified.
to differentiateB2formal /ˌdɪfəˈrɛnʃiˌeɪt/ to show or find how two things are not the same Synonyms: distinguish, tell apart, separate	mark a difference between	The test differentiates between students who guess and students who actually reason.
Differentiate 'between' two things, or differentiate X from Y; differentiate X and Y turns up in speech but reads as careless. Distinguish is shorter and usually better, unless you mean deliberately making things different, as a company differentiates its products.
discreteC1formal /dɪˈskrit/ separate and clearly different from other things Synonyms: separate, distinct, individual	separate; individual	The course divides the process into five discrete stages, each with its own test.
Discrete and discreet are said the same but mean unrelated things: a discrete category is separate, a discreet remark is tactful. Mathematics uses discrete for quantities that come in whole steps, the opposite of continuous.
distinctB2neutral /dɪˈstɪŋkt/ clearly different from something else, or easy to notice Synonyms: separate, different, unmistakable	clearly different; clear	The two species look similar but occupy distinct habitats on opposite slopes.
Distinct 'from' something carries the difference sense. Do not swap it for distinctive, which means marked out by a special quality: a distinctive accent is memorable, a distinct accent is merely another one. Distinctly also means clearly, as in distinctly uncomfortable.
characteristicB2neutral /ˌkærɪktəˈrɪstɪk/ a quality that belongs to a person or thing and helps identify it Synonyms: feature, quality, trait	a typical quality	Dense bone is a characteristic of animals that dive to great depths.
As an adjective it takes of: behavior characteristic of young birds. The stress sits on the fourth syllable, a long way from the first-syllable stress of character, /ˈkærɪktər/. Characteristically means in the way usual for that person or thing.
traitB2neutral /treɪt/ a quality in someone's character, or one passed on in a living thing Synonyms: quality, characteristic, feature	a quality of character	Patience is a trait the study found in nearly all successful long-term investors.
Traits belong to people, animals and plants, while arguments and machines have features instead. Biology speaks of inherited and dominant traits, psychology of personality traits. Trait is narrower than characteristic and usually points to something built in rather than learned.
aspectB2neutral /ˈæspɛkt/ one part or side of a situation or idea Synonyms: side, feature, element	one side of something	The paper examines the economic aspect of migration and leaves culture aside.
It names a way of looking at a thing rather than a piece you could remove, so for a removable piece write part, element or component. The frame is an aspect of something, and every aspect, one aspect and certain aspects are the common phrases.
facetC1formal /ˈfæsɪt/ one of the many sides of a complex subject Synonyms: aspect, side, angle	one part of a many-sided whole	Each facet of the reform deserves separate treatment in this week's seminar.
The picture behind the word is a cut stone, which is why every facet of is its commonest frame. It is slightly more formal than aspect and carries a faint sense of richness, so it suits identity, culture and daily life better than cost or timing.
elementB2neutral /ˈɛləmənt/ one of the parts that make up a whole Synonyms: part, component, factor	a necessary part	Trust is a key element in any working agreement between rival states.
Element 'of' or element 'in', with key, essential, central and common as the usual adjectives. Chemistry gives it a second life as a pure substance, and the elements with the means weather. Elementary means basic and is not the adjective for this noun.
constituentC1formal /kənˈstɪtʃuənt/ one of the parts that together form something larger Synonyms: component, part, ingredient	a component part	Chemists separated the mixture into its constituent gases and weighed each one.
Commonest as an adjective in front of a noun: constituent parts, constituent elements. The other sense is a voter in a politician's area, and news writing uses that one far more often, so the academic sense needs a clear context around it.
inherentC1formal /ɪnˈhɪrənt/ existing as a natural and permanent part of something Synonyms: built-in, intrinsic, natural	built in; natural	There is an inherent risk in any study that relies on people remembering accurately.
Inherent 'in' something, never inherent to it. The word says the quality cannot be removed without changing the thing itself, so an inherent limit is not a limit anyone can fix. Inherently before an adjective is the frequent adverb: inherently unstable.
intrinsicC1formal /ɪnˈtrɪnzɪk/ belonging to the basic nature of something rather than added from outside Synonyms: inherent, built-in, essential	belonging to the nature of	The experiment measured intrinsic motivation, not the short-lived effect of prizes.
Intrinsic 'to' something, and the opposite extrinsic is what makes the word useful: intrinsic motivation comes from the task, extrinsic motivation from rewards outside it. Intrinsic overlaps with inherent, but inherent stresses that the quality cannot be taken away.
fundamentalB2neutral /ˌfʌndəˈmɛntəl/ forming the base that everything else depends on Synonyms: basic, essential, underlying	basic; most important	The lecture returns to a fundamental question: what counts as evidence here?
Fundamental 'to' something is the frame for importance: sleep is fundamental to learning. As a plural noun the fundamentals means the basic parts of a subject. Fundamentally marks a difference of kind rather than one of degree.
essenceC1formal /ˈɛsəns/ the quality that makes something what it is Synonyms: core, heart, nature	the defining quality	The essence of the argument is that scarcity, not taste, drives the price.
In essence means basically and often opens a summary, while of the essence means vitally important, as in time is of the essence. The adjective essential has drifted toward merely necessary, which is why essential oils and an essential quality are unrelated ideas.
concreteB2neutral /ˈkɑŋkrit/ real and particular, able to be seen or measured Synonyms: specific, tangible, definite	not abstract; definite	The report needs concrete examples, not general claims about student behavior.
In academic use it is the opposite of abstract: a concrete noun names something you could touch, and a concrete proposal has real detail in it. Evidence, steps, plans and examples are its usual partners, and the building-material sense keeps the word plain rather than elegant.
tangibleC1formal /ˈtændʒəbəl/ able to be touched, or clear enough to be shown in real results Synonyms: real, measurable, solid	real; able to be touched	Two years of reform produced tangible gains in early reading scores.
Benefits, results, evidence and assets are its regular partners, and the point is always that you could show the thing to a doubter. The g is soft, as in danger. Its opposite intangible covers what resists measuring, such as reputation.
intangibleC1formal /ɪnˈtændʒəbəl/ real but impossible to touch or measure exactly Synonyms: unmeasurable, abstract, invisible	real but unmeasurable	Trust is an intangible asset that takes years to build and minutes to lose.
Business and law use intangible assets for patents, brands and goodwill, and the plural the intangibles names qualities that resist counting. The mistake to avoid is treating it as a polite word for unimportant, which it never means.
hypotheticalB2formal /ˌhaɪpəˈθɛtɪkəl/ imagined in order to test an idea, not real Synonyms: imagined, supposed, theoretical	imagined for argument	Consider a hypothetical economy with only two goods and no savings at all.
A hypothetical case is invented to test reasoning, which is not the same as a false one. Speaking hypothetically frees you from claiming the case is real. Stress falls on the third syllable here but on the second in hypothesis, /haɪˈpɑθəsɪs/.
arbitraryC1formal /ˈɑrbəˌtrɛri/ chosen without a clear reason or rule, or done by personal will alone Synonyms: unjustified, freely chosen	chosen without reason	The cutoff of sixty points is arbitrary and could just as easily be fifty-five.
It is not a synonym of random: in statistics random means governed by chance and counts as a virtue, while arbitrary means chosen on no principle and is a criticism. Of power rather than numbers it turns harsher still, meaning used without any limit.
nominalC1formal /ˈnɑmənəl/ existing in name but not in reality, or very small in amount Synonyms: in name only, token, small	in name only; token	He remained the nominal head of the department while others made every decision.
Economics adds a third sense that students meet early: nominal wages are the cash figures before inflation is removed, and real wages are the adjusted ones. A nominal fee is deliberately tiny. Nominally means officially but not in practice.
implicitC1formal /ɪmˈplɪsɪt/ suggested without being said directly Synonyms: unstated, understood, indirect	suggested, not stated	The question contains an implicit assumption that families are willing to move.
Implicit 'in' something: the criticism is implicit in her choice of example. A separate sense means complete, as in implicit trust, which has nothing to do with hiddenness. Its opposite is explicit, and implicitly is the adverb.
genericB2neutral /dʒəˈnɛrɪk/ shared by a whole group rather than belonging to one member Synonyms: general, shared, unbranded	general; not specific	The paper uses the generic term fuel where the data list coal and gas separately.
Calling a description generic is mildly critical and means too general to be useful, which is the sense a paper writer needs. A generic drug is simply an unbranded copy, and grammar borrows the word for the generic you, meaning people at large.
specificB2neutral /spəˈsɪfɪk/ exact and clearly named rather than general Synonyms: exact, particular, precise	exact; particular	Give a specific date; telling the committee soon tells them nothing at all.
Specific 'to' something means found only there: a problem specific to coastal towns. The family moves its stress about, so learn it as a set with specify, /ˈspɛsəˌfaɪ/, and specification, /ˌspɛsəfəˈkeɪʃən/. Specifically often replaces in particular.
to specifyB2neutral /ˈspɛsəˌfaɪ/ to state something exactly and in detail Synonyms: state, name, set out	state exactly	The instructions specify that all answers must be written in ink.
Specify that plus a clause, or specify a thing; specify about is wrong. Unspecified is the useful negative, as in an unspecified number of cases. The noun specification, shortened to spec in industry, names the written detail itself.
to defineB2neutral /dɪˈfaɪn/ to say exactly what a word or idea means, or to set its limits Synonyms: explain, set out, delimit	say what something means	The author defines poverty as an income below half the national median.
Define X 'as' Y is the frame, and define X like Y is wrong. Well-defined and clearly defined apply to limits as well as to meanings. By definition introduces something true simply because of how a word is used, not because evidence showed it.
terminologyC1formal /ˌtɜrməˈnɑlədʒi/ the set of special words used in a subject Synonyms: vocabulary, technical language, wording	the special words of a field	Each field builds its own terminology, which makes reading across fields slow work.
Treated as uncountable for the body of words as a whole, so write a great deal of terminology rather than many terminologies. A single word from such a set is a term. The adjective appears almost only in the phrase terminological confusion.
ambiguityC1formal /ˌæmbəˈɡjuəti/ the state of having more than one possible meaning Synonyms: double meaning, unclearness, vagueness	more than one meaning	The ambiguity in the question explains why student answers varied so widely.
Ambiguity is having several possible readings; vagueness is having no sharp boundary, and treating them as one word loses a real distinction. Countable when you mean a single unclear point, as in two ambiguities in the wording, and uncountable for the general quality.
to clarifyB2neutral /ˈklɛrəˌfaɪ/ to make something easier to understand Synonyms: explain, make clear, spell out	make clear	The professor clarified the difference between the two models before the exam.
You clarify a point, a position or what you mean; clarify about is wrong, and clarify me is a frequent slip for explain it to me. The noun clarification is what you politely request when a rule or a grade is unclear.
to denoteC1formal /dɪˈnoʊt/ to mean something, or to be a sign of it Synonyms: mean, stand for, indicate	stand for; label	In this table an asterisk denotes a figure the authors could not verify.
Denote covers the plain meaning a word or symbol carries, while connote covers the feelings around it: slim and skinny denote the same size and connote opposite judgments. Symbols, marks and labels denote things; people simply mean them.
to signifyC1formal /ˈsɪɡnəˌfaɪ/ to be a sign of something, or to be important Synonyms: mean, indicate, show	mean; carry weight	A sharp rise in this index signifies that firms expect demand to fall.
Learn the family whole, because the stress travels: signify on the first syllable, significance on the second, /sɪɡˈnɪfɪkəns/. In the negative it can mean matter at all, as in a two-day delay does not signify.
to designateC1formal /ˈdɛzɪɡˌneɪt/ to choose something officially for a purpose, or to give it a name Synonyms: name, appoint, assign	name officially; appoint	The agency designated the wetland as a protected area in 1998.
Designate X as Y, and the passive is far commoner in writing than the active. After a job title it means chosen but not yet in post, as in the director designate, and the ending is then said /nət/ rather than /ˌneɪt/.
domainC1formal /doʊˈmeɪn/ an area of activity or knowledge that one group studies or controls Synonyms: field, area, sphere	a field of knowledge	Questions of value fall outside the domain of physics altogether.
Domain 'of', with within the domain and outside the domain as the set phrases. Internet addresses have taken the word over, so a reader may need the academic sense signaled. Public domain means free for anyone to use.
disciplineB2neutral /ˈdɪsəplɪn/ a branch of knowledge studied and taught at a university Synonyms: field, subject, branch of study	a field of study	Economics now borrows methods from a discipline it long ignored: psychology.
The same word covers self-control and punishment, so the academic sense leans on partners like academic discipline, across disciplines and interdisciplinary. The adjective disciplinary belongs mostly to the punishment sense, which is why disciplinary action sounds like trouble.
scopeB2neutral /skoʊp/ the range of things that a piece of work deals with Synonyms: range, extent, coverage	range covered	Language change lies well beyond the scope of this chapter.
Beyond the scope of and within the scope of do most of the work in academic prose. Scale is size; scope is coverage. In the sense of room to act it is uncountable and takes for: scope for improvement. In lab talk a scope is usually a microscope.
contextB2neutral /ˈkɑntɛkst/ the situation or the words around something that give it meaning Synonyms: setting, background, surroundings	surrounding situation	The sentence looks harsh until you read it in the context of the whole letter.
In the context of and out of context are the phrases that carry the word, and quoting out of context is the standard accusation. Contextual is the adjective, and to contextualize means to supply the background a reader needs.
principleB2neutral /ˈprɪnsəpəl/ a basic rule or truth that explains how something works Synonyms: rule, law, basic truth	a basic rule	The design follows one simple principle: heat rises, so the vents sit high.
Principle and principal sound identical and never share a meaning: a principle is a rule, a principal is the head of a school or the sum borrowed in a loan. In principle means in theory, while on principle means from moral conviction.
perspectiveB2neutral /pərˈspɛktɪv/ a way of thinking about something, shaped by where you stand Synonyms: viewpoint, angle, standpoint	a point of view	From an economic perspective the policy succeeded; from a social one it failed.
From a perspective, never in a perspective. Put something in perspective means judge its real size against other things, and lose perspective means the opposite. The drawing sense, where distant objects shrink, explains why the metaphor works.
normB2neutral /nɔrm/ what is usual or expected in a group Synonyms: standard, usual practice, rule	what is usual	Working from home became the norm for office staff within a single year.
The norm with the means what usually happens, while norms in the plural are a group's shared rules of behavior, as in social norms. Normative is not the adjective for either: it means stating how things ought to be rather than describing how they are.
conventionB2neutral /kənˈvɛnʃən/ an accepted way of doing something that people follow without a written rule Synonyms: custom, accepted practice, tradition	an accepted practice	By convention, the control group is listed first in every table.
By convention opens a sentence about a shared habit that nobody voted on. Conventional means ordinary, often with a hint of unadventurous. A second sense is a large meeting or a formal treaty, so a convention can be an event as well as a habit.
processB2neutral /ˈprɑsɛs/ a series of steps or changes that leads to a result Synonyms: procedure, sequence of steps, method	a series of steps	Cell division is a process that takes several hours in most human tissues.
In the process of doing something means currently doing it, not having finished. Natural change is a process, while steps that people design are a procedure, and a lab report keeps the two apart. The plural is processes, /ˈprɑsɛsəz/.
sequenceB2neutral /ˈsikwəns/ a set of things arranged one after another in a fixed order Synonyms: order, series, succession	a fixed order	The sequence of events matters: the drought came before the price rise, not after.
A sequence 'of' things, and in sequence means in the right order. Sequential describes anything that must be done one step at a time. Subsequent looks like its adjective but means coming after, so the two cannot be swapped.
phaseB2neutral /feɪz/ one clear stage in a longer change or process Synonyms: stage, period, step	a stage in a process	The project entered its final phase after two years of careful testing.
You enter, complete or reach a phase, and reports number them: phase one, phase two. Phase in and phase out mean introduce or remove gradually. The spelling is not faze, which is a different verb meaning unsettle.
transitionB2neutral /trænˈzɪʃən/ a change from one state, system or period to another Synonyms: change, shift, move	a change between states	The transition from coal to gas took the region nearly twenty years.
Transition 'from' one thing 'to' another is the full frame, and either half can be dropped. Used as a verb it takes to: the school transitioned to online classes. Transitional describes anything temporary that bridges two states.
progressionB2neutral /prəˈɡrɛʃən/ a steady movement forward through a series of stages Synonyms: advance, development, sequence	movement through stages	The chart shows a clear progression from simple tools to complex machines.
Progression is the movement through stages and can be counted; progress is the improvement itself and cannot. A natural progression is the expected next step. Medicine uses the word for a disease getting worse, so it is not always good news.
onsetC1formal /ˈɑnˌsɛt/ the moment when something unpleasant or important begins Synonyms: beginning, start, arrival	the beginning of something bad	The onset of the illness is sudden, usually within a day of exposure.
The onset 'of' something, and that something is nearly always unwelcome: illness, winter, war, decline. Nobody writes the onset of a holiday. Rapid, sudden and gradual are its usual adjectives, and medicine writes early-onset before a disease name.
to emergeB2neutral /ɪˈmɜrdʒ/ to appear or become known after being hidden or unclear Synonyms: appear, come out, become known	appear; become known	A clear pattern emerged once the researchers grouped the schools by size.
Findings, patterns and problems emerge, and a person emerges from a place. It emerged that plus a clause is the standard way to report something that came to light. Emerging means newly developing, while an emergency is an unrelated word.
to occurB2neutral /əˈkɜr/ to happen, especially without being planned Synonyms: happen, take place, arise	happen; take place	Flooding occurs most often in the two weeks after the monsoon ends.
Nothing can be occurred and nobody occurs an event, because the verb takes no object. Occur 'to' somebody means come into their mind, as in it never occurred to me. The r doubles in occurred, occurring and occurrence.
to initiateC1formal /ɪˈnɪʃiˌeɪt/ to make something begin Synonyms: begin, start, set in motion	set in motion	The department initiated a review after three complaints in a single month.
Stiffer than start, and the subject is usually an organization: a committee initiates a review, while a person starts a car. Initiative, the noun, means both a new plan and the willingness to act first. An initiate is a new member, said with the ending /ɪət/.
gradualB2neutral /ˈɡrædʒuəl/ happening slowly in small steps rather than all at once Synonyms: slow, step-by-step, steady	slow and step by step	The decline was gradual, which is why nobody noticed it for a decade.
Gradual describes the shape of a change, not its size, so a gradual increase can still end up enormous. Decline, increase, shift and improvement are its partners. Its opposite in academic prose is abrupt or sudden rather than fast.
incrementalC1formal /ˌɪŋkrəˈmɛntəl/ happening in small steps of about the same size Synonyms: step-by-step, gradual, small-scale	in small regular steps	Progress here is incremental: each study adds one small piece of the picture.
An increment is one of those steps, often a fixed yearly rise in pay. Incremental change is small but deliberate, while gradual change is merely slow, so the two adjectives are not interchangeable. Incrementally is the adverb.
cumulativeC1formal /ˈkjumjələtɪv/ growing in amount because each part is added to the ones before Synonyms: total, building up, combined	adding up over time	The cumulative effect of small delays was a project two years late.
Effect, impact and total are its main partners, and the point is always that separate parts add up. Accumulate is the verb of the family, /əˈkjumjəˌleɪt/, with the stress two syllables later. A cumulative grade covers the whole course, not the latest test.
successiveC1formal /səkˈsɛsɪv/ following one after another without a break Synonyms: consecutive, back-to-back, in a row	one after another	Three successive years of drought emptied the reservoir and closed the local mill.
Put it in front of a plural noun to count an unbroken run: four successive terms. Do not read success into it, since a successive failure is still a failure. Consecutive means the same and is commoner in speech.
subsequentB2formal /ˈsʌbsəkwənt/ coming after something else in time Synonyms: later, following, next	coming after; later	The first trial failed, but subsequent trials used a much larger sample.
Subsequent 'to' is the formal preposition, though after is almost always the better choice. The adjective sits in front of a noun and never after a verb, so nothing is subsequent on its own. Subsequently means later and often opens a sentence.
priorB2formal /ˈpraɪər/ existing or happening before something else Synonyms: earlier, previous, advance	earlier; before	No prior knowledge of statistics is assumed in this introductory course.
Prior 'to' means before and belongs to formal writing; in speech before is shorter and never wrong. As an adjective it sits in front of the noun: prior experience, prior approval, prior agreement. It has no comparative form.
eventualB2neutral /ɪˈvɛntʃuəl/ happening at the end of a long process Synonyms: final, ultimate, resulting	arriving after delays	The eventual cost was three times the figure given in the first budget.
It sits before a noun and names the outcome that arrives after delays: the eventual winner, the eventual total. Eventually means in the end, never possibly, which is the error worth guarding against. There is no phrase in the eventual case.
ultimateB2neutral /ˈʌltəmət/ final in a series, or greatest of its kind Synonyms: final, greatest, eventual	final; greatest	The ultimate aim of the program is to remove the need for aid altogether.
The ultimate aim is the last one in a chain, while the ultimate insult is the worst imaginable, and only the first sense is much used in academic writing. Advertising has worn the second sense thin. Ultimately means in the end, or fundamentally.
to accumulateB2neutral /əˈkjumjəˌleɪt/ to collect more and more of something over a period of time Synonyms: build up, collect, pile up	build up; collect	Sediment accumulates on the lake floor at about one millimeter a year.
It works both ways: dust accumulates on its own, and a person accumulates wealth or evidence. The noun accumulation names the mass that results. Cumulative is the adjective in the family and moves the stress to its first syllable.
to alterB2neutral /ˈɔltər/ to change something, usually in a small way Synonyms: change, modify, adjust	change slightly	Adding salt alters the boiling point of water by a measurable amount.
Alter suits small changes to something that goes on existing, so you alter a design but transform a company. The noun is alteration; an altercation is a quarrel and belongs to another family. Unaltered is the useful negative when reporting figures.
to adjustB2neutral /əˈdʒʌst/ to make a small change so that something fits or works better Synonyms: fine-tune, adapt, change slightly	change so it fits	The authors adjusted the figures for inflation before comparing the two decades.
Adjust 'for' something means allow for it in a calculation, which is why adjusted figures are corrected ones. Adjust 'to' something means get used to it: students adjust to the workload. The noun is adjustment, and adjustable describes a thing that moves.
to reduceB2neutral /rɪˈdus/ to make something smaller in size, amount or degree Synonyms: lower, cut, decrease	make smaller; lower	Insulating the roof reduced heating costs by nearly a third.
Reduce X 'by' an amount gives the size of the fall, and reduce X 'to' a figure gives the endpoint: reduced by half, reduced to ten dollars. Reduce somebody to a state is harsher, as in reduced to poverty. The noun is reduction.
reductionB2neutral /rɪˈdʌkʃən/ the act of making something smaller, or the amount taken off Synonyms: cut, decrease, drop	a cut; a decrease	A ten percent reduction in class size produced no measurable change in scores.
A reduction 'in' something names what is falling, while a reduction 'of' an amount names the size of the cut, and swapping them changes the meaning. The vowel shifts between the verb, /rɪˈdus/, and the noun, /rɪˈdʌkʃən/.
to sustainB2formal /səˈsteɪn/ to keep something going at the same level over time Synonyms: keep up, maintain, support	keep going over time	No economy can sustain that rate of growth for more than a few years.
Growth, interest, effort and life are what writers sustain. A second sense is suffer, so to sustain an injury is to receive one rather than to bear it bravely. Sustained applause and sustained pressure both mean continuing without a break.
to maintain (a level)B2neutral /meɪnˈteɪn/ to keep something at the same level, or in good condition Synonyms: keep up, hold steady, keep in repair	keep at the same level	The bank maintained interest rates despite heavy pressure from the government.
Two everyday senses sit here: holding something steady, as with rates or a speed, and keeping something in working order, as with a road or a machine. The noun for the second is maintenance, /ˈmeɪntənəns/, which loses both the stress and the vowel of the verb. A third sense, insisting that something is true, always takes a that-clause.
to prevailC1formal /prɪˈveɪl/ to be the most common or strongest, or to win in the end Synonyms: predominate, be common, win out	be common; win out	The older method still prevails in laboratories outside the university system.
The preposition changes everything: prevail alone means be widespread, prevail 'over' someone means defeat them, and prevail 'on' someone means persuade them. Prevailing winds and the prevailing view are the fixed phrases worth memorizing.
prevalentC1formal /ˈprɛvələnt/ common in a place or among a group at a particular time Synonyms: widespread, common, general	common; widespread	The practice is far more prevalent in rural districts than in large cities.
Prevalent 'in' a place or 'among' a group. It describes conditions, beliefs and habits rather than objects, so you would not call a phone prevalent. The noun prevalence is the standard term for how common a disease or a behavior is.
stabilityB2neutral /stəˈbɪləti/ the state of staying steady and not changing suddenly Synonyms: steadiness, balance, firmness	steadiness; balance	Price stability matters more to small firms than two points of growth.
This family shifts both stress and vowel: stable, /ˈsteɪbəl/, stability, /stəˈbɪləti/, stabilize, /ˈsteɪbəˌlaɪz/. The noun is uncountable, and political, financial and price are its usual partners.
equilibriumC1formal /ˌikwəˈlɪbriəm/ a state in which opposing forces are balanced and nothing changes Synonyms: balance, steady state, even balance	a balance of forces	The market reaches equilibrium at the point where the two curves cross.
Reach, maintain and restore are the verbs that go with it, and in equilibrium names the state. It is stronger than balance because it says forces are holding each other in check. The plural equilibria appears in technical writing.
dynamicB2neutral /daɪˈnæmɪk/ constantly changing, or full of energy and new ideas Synonyms: changing, active, energetic	changing; energetic	Language is a dynamic system, not a fixed list of rules and words.
In academic use dynamic is simply the opposite of static and carries no praise, while in everyday speech a dynamic person is admired. As a noun, the dynamic of a group is the way its members act on one another.
staticB2neutral /ˈstætɪk/ not moving or changing Synonyms: unchanging, fixed, flat	unchanging; fixed	Wages remained static for five years while rents rose sharply.
Static usually describes something that ought to be moving and is not, so it carries mild criticism about wages, sales or populations. Stationary, with an a, means standing still, and stationery with an e is paper and pens.
to deviateC1formal /ˈdiviˌeɪt/ to move away from an expected course, rule or standard Synonyms: depart, differ, stray	move away from a course	None of the samples deviated from the expected value by more than two percent.
Deviate 'from' something is the only frame that works. The word is neutral about measurements but disapproving about people, where deviating from the rules means breaking them. The noun is deviation, and a deviant is a person judged abnormal.
deviationC1formal /ˌdiviˈeɪʃən/ the amount by which something differs from an expected value Synonyms: difference, departure, variation	difference from a standard	A deviation of one degree in the reading would change the whole conclusion.
A deviation 'from' a value or a norm, with the size given by of: a deviation of three points. Standard deviation is a fixed statistical term and is never reworded. The stress lands on the third syllable, later than in the verb.
to divergeC1formal /dəˈvɜrdʒ/ to move apart, or to become different from each other Synonyms: differ, separate, move apart	move apart; differ	The two accounts of the meeting diverge sharply after the first hour.
Diverge 'from' something, or two things diverge from each other. It suits paths, opinions and figures that once agreed and no longer do. The noun is divergence, and divergent turns up in the phrase divergent views.
to convergeC1formal /kənˈvɜrdʒ/ to come together at one point, or to become similar Synonyms: come together, meet, agree	come together; agree	Estimates from the three models converge on a figure close to four percent.
Converge 'on' a figure or a point, converge 'with' something else, and lines converge at a place. Learn it beside its opposite diverge, since academic prose uses the pair together. Convergence names the coming together, as in the convergence of two industries.
to intensifyB2neutral /ɪnˈtɛnsəˌfaɪ/ to become much stronger, or to make something stronger Synonyms: increase, strengthen, deepen	become much stronger	Competition for places intensified after the government cut student funding.
It works with or without an object: pressure intensifies, and a government intensifies its efforts. Feelings, competition and storms intensify, while prices and numbers rise instead. Intense describes strength of feeling, intensive means concentrated in a short time.
to mitigateC1formal /ˈmɪtəˌɡeɪt/ to make something bad less serious or less harmful Synonyms: reduce, ease, soften	make less bad	Planting trees along the river mitigated the worst of the seasonal flooding.
Only bad things are mitigated: risk, damage, harm, loss. Mitigating circumstances is the fixed legal phrase for facts that make an offense seem less serious. It is not militate, which means work against something and takes against.
to facilitateC1formal /fəˈsɪləˌteɪt/ to make something easier to do or to happen Synonyms: ease, help, make easier	make easier	The new software facilitates comparison between datasets from different years.
Facilitate takes a thing or an activity, never a person: you facilitate a discussion but help a student. Official writing often uses it where help would do, so keep it for cases where you really mean make easier. A facilitator guides a meeting without leading it.
to enableB2neutral /ɪˈneɪbəl/ to make it possible for someone or something to do something Synonyms: allow, make possible, permit	make possible	Satellite data enable researchers to track deforestation week by week.
Enable somebody 'to' DO something, with the infinitive; enable somebody doing is wrong, and so is enable that. Enable a thing, as in enable a setting, comes from computing. Its plain academic partner is allow.
to reverseB2neutral /rɪˈvɜrs/ to change something to its opposite state or direction Synonyms: undo, turn around, overturn	change to the opposite	Later studies reversed the earlier finding once better measurements existed.
Decisions, trends, policies and roles all get reversed. In reverse means backward, and the reverse of something is its opposite. The noun reversal names the change itself, as in a sharp reversal of policy.
to coincideB2neutral /ˌkoʊɪnˈsaɪd/ to happen at the same time as something else, or to be the same Synonyms: happen together, overlap, match	happen at the same time	The drop in sales coincided with the closure of the main bridge.
Saying two events coincided states their timing and claims no cause, which is exactly why careful writers choose it. Coincide with something is the only pattern. The noun coincidence suggests chance, so the verb sounds more neutral than the noun does.
concurrentC1formal /kənˈkɜrənt/ happening at the same time as something else Synonyms: simultaneous, parallel, side-by-side	overlapping in time	Students take two concurrent courses during the first semester and write on both.
It says nothing about whether the two events are connected, only that they overlap in time. Concurrent with something, and concurrently is the adverb: run two studies concurrently. Law uses concurrent sentences, served together rather than one after another.
to precedeC1formal /prɪˈsid/ to come or happen before something else Synonyms: come before, go before, lead up to	come before	A short warning period precedes each of the automated shutdowns.
It takes a direct object with no preposition: the crisis preceded the reform, never preceded to it. The spelling ends in -cede, unlike proceed with -ceed, and the two verbs mean opposite things. The noun precedent shifts to /ˈprɛsədənt/.
precedingC1formal /prɪˈsidɪŋ/ coming immediately before the one being discussed Synonyms: previous, earlier, foregoing	the one just before	The preceding chapter set out the figures on which this argument rests.
Use it before a noun and with the, because it points back to something already mentioned: the preceding section, the preceding year. Previous is the everyday equivalent. Proceeding, with an o, is an event or a legal action and is easy to mistype.
to accompanyB2formal /əˈkʌmpəni/ to happen or exist at the same time as something else Synonyms: go with, come with, attend	go together with	A sharp headache often accompanies the first stage of the illness.
The subject here is usually a thing rather than a person: fever accompanies infection, and a table accompanies the text. Accompanied 'by' is the common passive. The noun accompaniment belongs mostly to music and food.
to compoundC1formal /kəmˈpaʊnd/ to make a problem worse by adding something to it Synonyms: worsen, add to, aggravate	make worse; add to	Poor record keeping compounded the difficulty of tracing the original samples.
Only troubles get compounded: problems, difficulties, errors, losses. The verb takes stress on the second syllable and the noun on the first, /ˈkɑmpaʊnd/. Compound interest is figured on interest already earned, which is the same idea of adding onto itself.
to offsetC1formal /ˌɔfˈsɛt/ to balance something by having an equal and opposite effect Synonyms: balance, cancel out, make up for	balance out; cancel	Higher fuel costs were offset by savings on the newer engines.
Offset X against Y, or X is offset by Y, and the passive is commoner in writing. The past tense and past participle are both offset, with no -ed. As a noun the stress moves forward, /ˈɔfˌsɛt/, as in a carbon offset.
to counteractC1formal /ˌkaʊntərˈækt/ to act against something in order to reduce its effect Synonyms: work against, cancel out, neutralize	act against an effect	The drug counteracts the swelling but does nothing about the infection itself.
Counteract takes an effect and not a person: you counteract damage, dryness or a chemical. It differs from prevent, because whatever is counteracted has already begun. Offset is its financial cousin and balances gains against losses.
inevitableB2neutral /ɪnˈɛvətəbəl/ certain to happen and impossible to prevent Synonyms: unavoidable, certain, bound to happen	certain; unavoidable	Some loss of detail is inevitable when a long report is summarized.
It is inevitable that plus a clause is the standard frame. The inevitable as a noun means the thing nobody can stop. Inevitably means as everyone expected, and it often introduces a consequence the reader could already see coming.
relativeB2neutral /ˈrɛlətɪv/ judged by comparison with something else rather than on its own Synonyms: comparative, proportional, compared	judged by comparison	The relative importance of the two causes is still debated by historians.
The word warns that a judgment depends on the standard chosen, which is why relative poverty is measured against a country's own middle income rather than a fixed sum. Relative to something means compared with it: wages fell relative to prices.
respectiveC1formal /rɪˈspɛktɪv/ belonging separately to each of the people or things just mentioned Synonyms: own, individual, separate	belonging to each one	The two teams returned to their respective laboratories with copies of the data.
It sits in front of a plural noun and does the work of each: their respective fields. Respectively goes at the end and matches items to an earlier list in order, as in the figures were forty and sixty percent respectively. Respectable and respectful belong elsewhere.
comparableB2neutral /ˈkɑmpərəbəl/ similar enough to be compared fairly Synonyms: similar, equivalent, matched	similar enough to compare	The two towns are comparable in size, which makes the income gap striking.
Comparable 'to' something for likeness, comparable 'with' it when figures are set side by side. Careful American speech puts the stress on the first syllable, unlike compare, /kəmˈpɛr/. Incomparable means too good to be matched rather than impossible to compare.
comparativeC1formal /kəmˈpærətɪv/ measured or judged by comparing one thing with another Synonyms: relative, side-by-side, contrastive	setting cases side by side	The chapter takes a comparative approach, setting three school systems side by side.
It marks a method as much as a judgment, which is why comparative literature and comparative politics are names of fields. Comparative advantage in economics means being relatively better at something, not best at it. Comparatively softens an adjective much as relatively does.
analogousC1formal /əˈnæləɡəs/ similar in an important way to something otherwise different Synonyms: similar, parallel, comparable	similar in one key way	The heart is analogous to a pump, though the comparison has clear limits.
Analogous 'to' something, never with it. The g is hard here, /ɡ/, although the noun analogy has a soft one, /əˈnælədʒi/. The claim is likeness in function or structure, not in appearance, so a wing and a propeller can be analogous.
analogyB2neutral /əˈnælədʒi/ a comparison that explains one thing by showing how it resembles another Synonyms: comparison, parallel, likeness	an explaining comparison	The lecturer drew an analogy between the immune system and a police force.
You draw or make an analogy 'between' two things, or an analogy 'with' one of them. By analogy introduces reasoning from a similar case. The plural is analogies, and the adjective analogous puts a hard g back into the stem.
equivalentB2neutral /ɪˈkwɪvələnt/ equal in value, amount or meaning Synonyms: matching, worth the same	equal in value	One unit of this measure is equivalent to about three hours of work.
Equivalent 'to' something as an adjective, the equivalent 'of' something as a noun. Equal means identical in amount, while equivalent allows different forms with the same value, which is why time and money can be equivalent but never equal.
parallelB2neutral /ˈpærəˌlɛl/ very similar and happening alongside something else Synonyms: matching, similar, corresponding	closely similar; alongside	The study found a parallel decline in both bird and insect populations.
As a noun you draw a parallel 'between' two things, and in parallel means at the same time and separately. The spelling has one r and one final l. Unparalleled, which means having no equal, is where the l doubles.
counterpartC1formal /ˈkaʊntərˌpɑrt/ a person or thing with the same job or place in another group Synonyms: equivalent, opposite number, match	an equivalent person or thing	The minister met her counterpart from the neighboring country in early March.
A counterpart 'in' another organization, or simply somebody's counterpart. It suits people and institutions rather than abstract ideas, so a theory has a parallel while a president has a counterpart. Counter- here means matching, not opposing.
to contrastB2neutral /kənˈtræst/ to compare two things in order to show how different they are Synonyms: compare, set against, differentiate	show differences	The article contrasts city and village schooling without favoring either one.
Contrast X 'with' Y is the frame for the verb, and the noun shifts its stress forward to /ˈkɑntræst/. Compare looks for likeness and difference together, while contrast looks only for difference, so the two verbs do different jobs.
disparateC1formal /ˈdɪspərət/ very different from one another and hard to compare Synonyms: very different, unlike, mismatched	very different; mismatched	The committee had to combine disparate sources into one readable report.
It goes before a plural noun and hints that the things do not belong together: disparate groups, disparate findings. Separate looks similar and means something else entirely. The stress is on the first syllable, /ˈdɪspərət/.
homogeneousC1formal /ˌhoʊməˈdʒiniəs/ made of parts that are all of the same kind Synonyms: uniform, all the same, unmixed	all of one kind	The sample was homogeneous, which makes the results hard to apply elsewhere.
It describes a group whose members do not differ and takes no preposition. The shorter spelling homogenous is often seen, but the five-syllable form is safer in academic writing. Milk is homogenized, and that verb keeps the shorter stem.
heterogeneousC1formal /ˌhɛtərəˈdʒiniəs/ made of parts that are of many different kinds Synonyms: mixed, varied, diverse	of many kinds; mixed	A heterogeneous class of thirty children makes whole-group teaching much harder.
Long but regular, with the main stress on the fourth syllable. It describes groups and mixtures rather than single things, so no one person is heterogeneous. Diverse is the everyday equivalent and carries approval that this word does not.
consistentB2neutral /kənˈsɪstənt/ always happening in the same way, or not contradicting something Synonyms: steady, uniform, in agreement	steady; in agreement	The results are consistent across all four years of the survey.
Consistent 'with' something means in agreement with it, while a consistent performance is simply reliable, and only the first sense needs a preposition. Inconsistent covers both. Consistency is the noun, and consistently is very frequent when reporting figures.
coherentC1formal /koʊˈhɪrənt/ clearly connected and making sense as a whole Synonyms: connected, logical, unified	logically connected	The chapters are good separately but do not form a coherent account.
Coherent describes wholes that hang together, so a coherent policy has parts that fit each other. Said of a person it means able to speak clearly, often after illness or shock. Cohesive is the close relative and stresses sticking together rather than making sense.
to correspondB2neutral /ˌkɔrəˈspɑnd/ to match something else, or to be equal to it Synonyms: match, agree, fit	match; be equal to	The numbers in the table correspond to the labels printed on the map.
Correspond 'to' something means match it, while correspond 'with' someone means exchange letters, so the preposition carries the whole meaning. Corresponding before a noun means matching: the corresponding figure for last year. The noun correspondence covers both senses.
to conformB2neutral /kənˈfɔrm/ to obey a rule or standard, or to behave as other people do Synonyms: comply, follow, fit in	follow a rule or standard	All new buildings must conform to the revised safety standards.
Conform 'to' a rule or a standard, and conform 'with' an established practice; nothing conforms a rule. Used of people it often sounds critical, since conforming implies giving up individuality. Conformity is the noun and a nonconformist the opposite type.
to complementC1formal /ˈkɑmpləˌmɛnt/ to add what is missing so that two things work well together Synonyms: go well with, complete, round out	complete; go well with	The figures complement the written account rather than simply repeating it.
Complement with an e completes something; compliment with an i is praise, and the two are said alike. A complement fills a gap, which is why complementary colors and complementary skills belong together. As a noun the ending weakens to /mənt/.
to spanC1neutral /spæn/ to cover a length of time or a range of things Synonyms: cover, stretch across, extend over	cover a range or period	Her career spans four decades and three quite different research fields.
Span takes a direct object and no preposition: it spans thirty years, not spans over thirty years. The noun gives lifespan and a span of control. Bridges span rivers, which is where the sense of reaching across comes from.
magnitudeC1formal /ˈmæɡnəˌtud/ the great size, scale or importance of something Synonyms: size, scale, importance	great size or importance	Nobody expected a problem of this magnitude so early in the project.
Of this magnitude and an order of magnitude are its frames, and an order of magnitude means a factor of ten. It is uncountable and formal, so scale is often better in speech. Earthquakes and stars use it as a technical measure.
extentB2neutral /ɪkˈstɛnt/ how large, serious or complete something is Synonyms: size, degree, scale	how far; how much	The full extent of the damage became clear only after the water fell.
To what extent opens countless exam questions, and to some extent, to a large extent and to the extent that are the fixed phrases. The noun is spelled extent, not extend, which is the verb. Extensive is the adjective in the family.
degreeB2neutral /dɪˈɡri/ the amount or level to which something happens or is true Synonyms: level, amount, extent	level; intensity	The two methods differ in degree rather than in kind.
To a degree and to some degree mean partly, while by degrees means gradually. A difference of degree is one of amount and a difference in kind is one of type, a distinction worth keeping clear. University qualifications and temperatures share the word.
ratioB2neutral /ˈreɪʃioʊ/ the relation between two amounts, showing how many times one contains the other Synonyms: relation, balance, rate	the relation between two amounts	The student-to-staff ratio rose from twelve to nineteen in five years.
The ratio 'of' one thing 'to' another, and the value is read as two to one or written 2:1. A ratio compares two quantities directly, so it is not a percentage, which compares one quantity with a hundred. The plural is ratios.
proportionalC1formal /prəˈpɔrʃənəl/ changing at the same rate as something else Synonyms: in proportion, matched in rate, relative	changing at the same rate	Heat loss is proportional to the difference between inside and outside temperatures.
Proportional 'to' something. Directly proportional means both rise together and inversely proportional means one falls as the other rises, so the bare word can leave a reader guessing. Proportionate is nearly the same but is preferred where fairness is the point.
aggregateC1formal /ˈæɡrɪɡət/ a total formed by adding separate amounts together Synonyms: total, combined amount, whole	a combined total	In aggregate the five studies point to a small but real benefit.
In aggregate and in the aggregate both mean taken as a whole. The noun and adjective end in /ɡət/ while the verb ends in /ˌɡeɪt/, so aggregate data and to aggregate data sound different. The word hints that a single total hides variation among its parts.
marginalC1formal /ˈmɑrdʒənəl/ too small to be important, or at the edge of something Synonyms: slight, minor, small	barely worth mentioning	The change produced only a marginal improvement in test scores.
In general writing marginal means barely worth mentioning, but economics gives it a precise and neutral sense: marginal cost is the cost of producing one more unit. Marginalized people are pushed to the edge of society. Marginally means slightly.
substantialB2neutral /səbˈstænʃəl/ large enough in amount or degree to be important Synonyms: large, sizable, considerable	large; sizable	The department received a substantial grant for equipment this academic year.
Substantial is about size that matters: a substantial grant is large, and a substantial difference is one worth acting on. Do not read substance into it, since the word says nothing about what a thing is made of. Substantially the same means almost identical.
considerableB2neutral /kənˈsɪdərəbəl/ large in amount, size or degree Synonyms: large, great, substantial	quite a lot of	The reform required considerable effort from teachers already short of time.
Place it in front of a noun, especially an uncountable one: considerable effort, considerable damage, considerable interest. Nothing is considerable on its own after a verb. Do not confuse it with considerate, which means thoughtful toward other people.
negligibleC1formal /ˈnɛɡlɪdʒəbəl/ so small that it can safely be ignored Synonyms: tiny, insignificant, unimportant	too small to matter	The difference between the two groups was negligible once age was included.
Calling a quantity negligible is a claim about importance rather than about measurement, so the number still exists. Negligent is a different word and means carelessly failing in a duty. The g before the i is soft, as in gem.
minimalB2neutral /ˈmɪnəməl/ as small as possible, or very small indeed Synonyms: very small, slight, barely any	reduced to the least	The new method gives usable results with minimal training and no special equipment.
Minimal means the smallest amount that will do, which is why minimal effort reads as criticism while minimal risk reads as praise. Minimum is the noun for the lowest point. Minimalist describes a style and is not the adverb of this word.
optimalC1formal /ˈɑptəməl/ best possible in a particular situation Synonyms: best, ideal, most favorable	best possible	Growth is optimal at about twenty degrees and slows sharply above thirty.
Optimal already names the best point given real limits, so more optimal and most optimal are both errors. Optimum serves as noun and adjective, and optimize is the verb. It has nothing to do with being cheerful, which is optimistic.
finiteC1formal /ˈfaɪnaɪt/ having an end or a limit Synonyms: limited, bounded, countable	limited; having an end	Fossil fuels are a finite resource, however large the remaining reserves look.
Finite resources, a finite number and a finite period are the usual pairings, and the point is always that the supply can run out. Both vowels are long here, /ˈfaɪnaɪt/, while infinite shortens both and moves the stress, /ˈɪnfənət/.
numerousB2formal /ˈnumərəs/ many, or existing in large numbers Synonyms: many, plentiful, countless	many; a great many	Numerous studies have reported the same effect in several different countries.
Pair it only with plural countable nouns, since numerous evidence is wrong where much evidence is right. As a formal alternative to many it sounds odd in speech about small groups. Numeral and numerical belong to counting rather than to quantity.
minorityB2neutral /məˈnɔrəti/ the smaller part of a group Synonyms: smaller part, few, lesser number	the smaller part	Only a small minority of respondents said the change had hurt them.
A minority 'of' people, and the verb may be singular or plural depending on whether you see the group as one body or as many individuals. In the minority means outnumbered. The word also names an ethnic or religious group, so the context has to be clear.
deficiencyC1formal /dɪˈfɪʃənsi/ a lack of something needed, or a fault in something Synonyms: lack, shortage, fault	a lack; a fault	The illness is caused by a deficiency of iron in the daily diet.
A deficiency 'of' or 'in' something, and both are standard: a deficiency of vitamin D, a deficiency in the design. Medicine uses it for a missing substance and engineering for a fault, so the field decides the sense. Deficient is the adjective.
abundanceC1formal /əˈbʌndəns/ a very large quantity of something Synonyms: plenty, large amount, wealth	a very large amount	The region has an abundance of wind but almost no running water.
An abundance 'of' something, while in abundance follows the noun: rainfall in abundance. Biology uses abundance for how many individuals of a species are present, which is a count rather than praise. Abundant is the adjective.
scarcityC1formal /ˈskɛrsəti/ a situation in which there is not enough of something Synonyms: shortage, lack, want	a shortage	Water scarcity now shapes farming decisions across the whole valley.
Scarcity 'of' something, and economics treats it as the basic condition that forces people to choose. A shortage suggests a temporary gap, while scarcity suggests a lasting one. The adverb scarcely means hardly and has drifted away from this sense.
quantityB2neutral /ˈkwɑntəti/ an amount of something that can be counted or measured Synonyms: amount, volume, number	an amount	The quantity of salt in the sample was measured three separate times.
Quantity is the safe general word where amount and number split: amount goes with uncountables like water, and number with countables like students, so a large amount of students is a marked error. In quantity means in large amounts.
to exceedB2neutral /ɪkˈsid/ to be greater than a number, limit or expectation Synonyms: go beyond, pass, be more than	go beyond; be more than	Costs exceeded the original estimate by more than forty percent.
Nothing exceeds over a figure, because the verb takes a direct object and no preposition. Exceed expectations is the standard praise and exceed the speed limit the standard offense. The spelling ends in -ceed, unlike precede, and excessive is the adjective.
to surpassC1formal /sərˈpæs/ to be better or greater than someone or something else Synonyms: beat, outdo, go beyond	beat; do better than	Output surpassed the previous record in the second quarter of the year.
Surpass implies being better, while exceed simply means being more, so a figure can exceed a limit but a scholar surpasses a rival. It takes an object with no preposition. Surpassing used as an adjective sounds literary rather than academic.
adequateB2neutral /ˈædəkwət/ enough for what is needed, but no more than that Synonyms: enough, sufficient, acceptable	enough, but only just	The funding was adequate for the fieldwork but not for the laboratory time.
Adequate 'for' a purpose, or adequate 'to' a task. It faintly damns, so calling a piece of work adequate means it passes and nothing more. Sufficient names the same quantity without the judgment, and it is the safer word in a neutral report.
modestB2neutral /ˈmɑdɪst/ not large, though real enough to notice Synonyms: small, slight, limited	small but real	The trial reported a modest gain in reading speed after six weeks.
A modest increase, gain or improvement is small but genuine, which makes the word useful when a result is real yet unimpressive. Its other sense describes a person who does not boast. Modestly can therefore mean either slightly or humbly.
slightB2neutral /slaɪt/ very small in degree or amount Synonyms: small, minor, faint	very small in degree	There was a slight rise in temperature, well within the margin of error.
In this sense it goes before a noun or after a linking verb, as in the increase was slight. The noun a slight is unrelated and means an insult. Slightly is extremely common as a softener before adjectives and comparatives: slightly higher.
spectrumC1formal /ˈspɛktrəm/ a full range of related things lying between two extreme points Synonyms: range, scale, continuum	a range between two poles	Opinions on the reform cover the spectrum from strong support to open hostility.
Across the spectrum and at either end of the spectrum are the frames. A spectrum needs two poles with everything in between, so a spectrum of two items makes no sense. The plural is spectra in physics, though spectrums appears in general writing.
continuumC1formal /kənˈtɪnjuəm/ a range in which the parts change gradually with no clear divisions Synonyms: unbroken range, gradual scale, spectrum	an unbroken range	Ability forms a continuum, so any cutoff between groups is a decision, not a fact.
On a continuum is the phrase, and the plural is continua. Calling something a continuum makes a real claim, that there are no natural breaks in it, which is why the word resists sorting things into categories. Continuous is the adjective.
hierarchyC1formal /ˈhaɪəˌrɑrki/ a system in which people or things are ranked one above another Synonyms: ranking, order of rank, ladder	a system of ranks	The chapter describes a hierarchy of needs, with simple survival at the bottom.
A hierarchy 'of' things, and the adjective hierarchical moves the stress to the third syllable, /ˌhaɪəˈrɑrkɪkəl/. The first syllable sounds like high. Applied to organizations the word often carries quiet criticism of layers and formality.
compositionB2neutral /ˌkɑmpəˈzɪʃən/ the way in which the parts of something are combined Synonyms: makeup, structure, arrangement	what something is made of	The composition of the panel changed twice during the three-year study.
The composition 'of' something is what it consists of, which is why both age composition and chemical composition work. It also names a piece of music or a short school essay. Be composed 'of' is the passive frame that matches this noun.
to composeC1formal /kəmˈpoʊz/ to be the parts that together form a whole Synonyms: make up, form, constitute	make up; form	Six small states compose the northern half of the federation.
The parts compose the whole, and the whole is composed 'of' the parts, a direction learners often reverse. Comprise means the same as be composed of and takes no of, so comprised of is disliked by careful editors. Composition is the noun.
to consistB2neutral /kənˈsɪst/ to be made of particular parts or things Synonyms: be made up of, comprise, contain	be made up of	The course consists of eight lectures and a single written assignment.
Consist 'of' is the only frame for parts, and because there is no passive, is consisted of is always wrong. Consist 'in' means have as its essence, as in the difficulty consists in the timing. Consistent belongs to a separate sense of the stem.
to constituteC1formal /ˈkɑnstəˌtut/ to form something, or to count as it Synonyms: make up, form, amount to	amount to; count as	Women constitute nearly two-thirds of the students in the program.
Constitute takes a direct object and no preposition, so constitute of is wrong. Besides making up a total it can mean count as, which is how a lawyer writes that an act constitutes a breach. The noun constitution also names a body of law.
segmentB2neutral /ˈsɛɡmənt/ one of the parts into which something can be divided Synonyms: part, section, portion	a part; a section	Each segment of the population responded differently to the price change.
A segment 'of' something, and the picture behind it is a clean cut, as in a segment of an orange. Business writing uses market segment. The verb to segment shifts its stress to the second syllable, /sɛɡˈmɛnt/.
functionB2neutral /ˈfʌŋkʃən/ the purpose something has, or the job it does Synonyms: purpose, role, job	purpose; role	The main function of the kidney is to remove waste from the blood.
The function 'of' something, and you serve or perform a function. A function of in mathematics means determined by, so price is a function of demand claims much more than price is related to demand. As a verb it means work properly.
functionalB2neutral /ˈfʌŋkʃənəl/ working properly, or designed for use rather than beauty Synonyms: working, usable, practical	working; practical	The prototype is functional but far too heavy for daily classroom use.
A functional machine works; a functional design puts use before looks. Medicine adds a third sense, where functional means affecting how an organ works rather than how it is built. Functionality names what a device is able to do.
integralC1formal /ˈɪntəɡrəl/ necessary as a part of a whole Synonyms: essential, built-in, necessary	essential to the whole	Fieldwork is an integral part of the degree, not an optional extra.
Integral 'to' something, with an integral part as the standard phrase. It means built into the whole rather than merely important, so an integral stage cannot be removed. The mathematical noun is sometimes heard with second-syllable stress, /ɪnˈtɛɡrəl/.
to integrateB2neutral /ˈɪntəˌɡreɪt/ to combine parts so that they work together as one Synonyms: combine, bring together, merge	combine into one	The report integrates findings from three fields into a single clear account.
Integrate X 'into' or 'with' Y, and both prepositions are standard. Used of people it means joining fully into a community, which gives the word a political weight the neutral sense lacks. Integration is the noun and integrated the frequent adjective.
interactionB2neutral /ˌɪntərˈækʃən/ the way in which two things or people affect each other Synonyms: mutual effect, exchange, contact	mutual effect	The interaction between diet and exercise matters more than either one alone.
Statistics reserves interaction effect for cases where the effect of one cause depends on the level of the other, so do not use the phrase loosely for any pair that both matter. Interaction between two things, or interaction with one of them. The verb interact takes with.
interdependentC1formal /ˌɪntərdɪˈpɛndənt/ depending on each other so that neither works alone Synonyms: mutually dependent, linked, connected	depending on each other	The two markets are interdependent, so a shock in one reaches the other quickly.
The prefix does the work: interdependent says the dependence runs both ways, which dependent alone never says. The noun interdependence is common in writing about economies and ecosystems. Main stress falls on the fourth syllable.
boundaryB2neutral /ˈbaʊndəri/ a line or limit that separates one thing from another Synonyms: border, limit, dividing line	a dividing line	The boundary between the two fields of study has become hard to draw.
A boundary 'between' two things, and boundaries are drawn, crossed, blurred and pushed. Border belongs to countries and land, while boundary works for abstract limits as well. To push the boundaries means to extend what is possible.
peripheralC1formal /pəˈrɪfərəl/ of little importance, or at the outer edge of something Synonyms: minor, side, outer	minor; at the edge	These objections are peripheral to the main argument of the paper.
The word sounds dismissive, so calling a concern peripheral is a polite way of setting it aside rather than answering it. Peripheral to something. The noun periphery, /pəˈrɪfəri/, names the edge, and computing borrowed peripheral for an attached device.
coreB2neutral /kɔr/ the most important and central part of something Synonyms: center, heart, essential part	the central part	At the core of the debate lies a disagreement about what counts as harm.
At the core of and the core of are the frames for the noun, while as a modifier it needs no of at all: core beliefs, core subjects, core business. Central is the adjective when one is wanted. Hardcore has drifted far from this sense.
mediumC1formal /ˈmidiəm/ a way of carrying or expressing something Synonyms: channel, means, vehicle	a channel for expression	Print remained the main medium of scientific exchange for three centuries.
The plural for channels of communication is media, now often treated as a mass noun in the media is; science keeps the plural too, as in growth media. When medium means a middle size or a person claiming to contact the dead, the plural is mediums.
subordinateC1formal /səˈbɔrdənət/ less important than something else, or lower in rank Synonyms: lower, secondary, lesser	lower; less important	In this model economic goals are subordinate to environmental ones.
Subordinate 'to' something. As a noun it means a person of lower rank, and as a verb it means treat as less important, with the ending then said /ˌneɪt/. Grammar uses subordinate clause for a clause that cannot stand on its own.
basisB2neutral /ˈbeɪsɪs/ the fact or idea that something is built on Synonyms: foundation, grounds, starting point	the grounds for something	The argument rests on a shaky basis, since the sample was extremely small.
On the basis of means using something as evidence, while on a regular basis simply means regularly and is longer than it needs to be. The plural is bases, /ˈbeɪsiz/, spelled like the plural of base but said differently. Basic is the adjective.
foundationB2neutral /faʊnˈdeɪʃən/ the base that something rests on, or the act of starting it Synonyms: base, groundwork, basis	what everything rests on	Careful measurement provides the foundation for everything that follows in the book.
The foundation 'of' or 'for' something, and a claim described as without foundation is one nothing supports. The word also names an organization that gives money away, so the context has to say which is meant. Foundational describes ideas everything else depends on.
to serveB2neutral /sɜrv/ to be useful for a particular purpose Synonyms: act as, work as, function as	act as; be useful for	This chapter serves as an introduction to the methods used later in the book.
Serve 'as' something, or serve a purpose, a function or a need, with no reference to food in this sense. It serves to do something is a compact way of stating a purpose. The related noun for the general idea is service.
to utilizeC1formal /ˈjutəˌlaɪz/ to use something, especially in an effective or planned way Synonyms: use, employ, make use of	use; put to use	The study utilizes records that no earlier researcher had ever opened.
Utilize is almost never better than use, and swapping one in for the other is the quickest way to make writing sound inflated. It earns its place only where the point is putting something to unexpected or efficient use. The noun is utilization.
to undertakeC1formal /ˌʌndərˈteɪk/ to begin a large or serious piece of work Synonyms: take on, carry out, embark on	begin a large task	The department undertook a review of every course in the catalog.
Undertake a study, a project or a review, and remember the irregular forms undertook and undertaken. A second sense is promise formally, as in the firm undertook to repay the money. An undertaking is either a big task or such a promise.
to pursueB2neutral /pərˈsu/ to continue working toward something over a long period Synonyms: follow up, work toward, chase	work toward; follow up	She pursued the question for a decade before the data existed to answer it.
Pursue a career, a goal, a line of inquiry or a question, always with no preposition. In academic prose the object is abstract, since chasing a person belongs to news reporting. The noun pursuit takes of: the pursuit of accuracy.
to deviseC1formal /dɪˈvaɪz/ to invent a plan or method by careful thought Synonyms: invent, work out, design	think up; design	The team devised a simple test that any school could run in an afternoon.
Devise a method, a scheme, a plan or a system; objects are designed or invented instead. The verb ends in a /z/ sound while the noun device ends in /s/, which is the only audible difference between them.
to formulateC1formal /ˈfɔrmjəˌleɪt/ to express an idea or plan clearly and in detail Synonyms: work out, express clearly, frame	express clearly in detail	It took months to formulate a question the available data could actually answer.
What gets formulated is always made of words: a question, a policy, a theory, a plan. Carefully formulated means precisely worded rather than merely well thought out. The noun formulation names the wording finally chosen.
to establishB2neutral /ɪˈstæblɪʃ/ to set something up permanently, or to prove that something is true Synonyms: set up, found, prove	set up; prove	The study establishes a clear link between the two sets of measurements.
Two senses live side by side: set up an institution, and show beyond reasonable doubt. The second takes a that-clause, as in the report establishes that the figures were wrong. Well-established means long accepted, and an establishment can be a business.
to attainC1formal /əˈteɪn/ to succeed in reaching a level or goal after effort Synonyms: reach, achieve, gain	reach after effort	Few students attain the highest band on their first attempt at the exam.
Attain a level, a standard, a goal or an age, and the word implies effort over time, which is why nobody attains a bus. It is a step more formal than reach. Attainment is the noun and is common in writing about schools.
to fulfillB2neutral /fʊlˈfɪl/ to do what is required, or to satisfy a need Synonyms: meet, satisfy, carry out	meet; satisfy	The applicant fulfills every condition for entry except the language requirement.
Fulfill a requirement, a condition, a role, a promise or a need. Fulfilling as an adjective describes work that leaves a person satisfied, which is a separate idea from meeting a rule. American spelling doubles the final l, while British writing keeps one.
to incorporateC1formal /ɪnˈkɔrpəˌreɪt/ to include something as part of a larger whole Synonyms: include, build in, absorb	include as part	The revised model incorporates data on rainfall for the first time.
Incorporate X 'into' Y, or incorporate X 'in' Y, and both appear in published prose. Business has a second sense, forming a legal company, which is why American firm names end in Inc. Incorporation serves both senses.
inclusiveB2neutral /ɪnˈklusɪv/ including everything or everyone mentioned Synonyms: including all, all-in, comprehensive	including everything	The figures are inclusive of tax, so no further amount should be added.
Inclusive 'of' something when counting, and inclusive on its own as praise for a policy that leaves nobody out. Ranges use it too: pages ten to twenty inclusive counts page twenty. Its opposite exclusive has an everyday sense almost the reverse of that praise.
to excludeB2neutral /ɪkˈsklud/ to leave something out on purpose Synonyms: leave out, omit, rule out	leave out	The authors excluded any case with incomplete records from the final count.
Exclude X 'from' Y is the frame. Excluding and to the exclusion of both signal what is left out, and excluding is clearer than an ambiguous but. The noun exclusion is countable, as in three exclusions from the sample.
to precludeC1formal /prɪˈklud/ to make something impossible before it can happen Synonyms: prevent, rule out, make impossible	make impossible in advance	Lack of funding precludes any follow-up study before next fall.
Preclude a thing, or preclude somebody 'from' doing something; preclude to do is wrong. It is far stronger than discourage, since whatever is precluded cannot happen at all. Exclude leaves something out of a group, while preclude stops it occurring.
to deriveB2formal /dɪˈraɪv/ to get something from a source, or to come from one Synonyms: come from, obtain, take from	get from a source	Most of these terms derive from Latin by way of French.
Derive X 'from' Y, or X derives from Y, and both directions are frequent. Learn the family together, since the stress and vowels move: derivation, /ˌdɛrəˈveɪʃən/, and derivative, /dɪˈrɪvətɪv/, which as an adjective is an insult meaning unoriginal.
to extractC1formal /ɪkˈstrækt/ to take something out, especially with difficulty Synonyms: take out, draw out, pull out	take out with effort	Researchers extracted usable figures from a century of handwritten registers.
Extract X 'from' Y. The noun pulls the stress to the front, /ˈɛkstrækt/, and means either a substance drawn out or a short passage quoted from a text. Extraction covers mining, dentistry and data work alike.
to exertC1formal /ɪɡˈzɜrt/ to use power, force or influence to produce an effect Synonyms: apply, use, bring to bear	apply force or influence	The committee exerted steady pressure until the rule was finally changed.
Only a short list of nouns follows it: exert influence, pressure, force or control. Exert yourself means make a physical effort, and exertion is that effort as a noun. The x is said /ɡz/ here, as in exam.
impactB2neutral /ˈɪmpækt/ a strong effect that one thing has on another Synonyms: effect, influence, consequence	a strong effect	The policy had little impact on the number of students finishing the course.
An impact 'on' something, never to it, and the noun keeps first-syllable stress while the verb takes the second, /ɪmˈpækt/. Using impact as a verb meaning affect is now widespread but still annoys many readers, so affect is the safer choice in a paper.
to affectB2neutral /əˈfɛkt/ to cause a change in something Synonyms: influence, change, act on	cause a change in	Rising temperatures affect the timing of the harvest across the whole region.
Affect is the verb and effect the noun in nearly every sentence a student writes: heat affects growth, and the effect of heat can be measured. A rare verb effect does exist, meaning bring about, as in effect a change. Affect can also mean pretend to have.
effectB2neutral /ɪˈfɛkt/ a change that something causes Synonyms: result, consequence, outcome	a result; a consequence	The effect of the drug appears within an hour and lasts about six.
The effect 'on' what changes, and the effect 'of' what causes it; have an effect on is the standard frame. Take effect means begin to work, and in effect means in practice. Effective means working well, while affective, with an a, concerns feelings.
to determineB2neutral /dɪˈtɜrmɪn/ to control what something will be, or to find it out exactly Synonyms: decide, control, find out	decide; find out exactly	Soil depth largely determines which crops the valley can support without irrigation.
Two distinct senses: cause something to be a certain way, and discover it by investigation. The second takes a question word, as in determine whether the sample was contaminated. Determined about a person means unwilling to give up, and a determinant is a deciding factor.
to governB2neutral /ˈɡʌvərn/ to control how something works or happens Synonyms: control, rule, regulate	control; rule	A single equation governs the flow of heat through the whole material.
Away from politics, rules and laws govern processes, and the passive governed 'by' is very common in scientific writing. Grammar borrows it as well, where a verb governs its object. Governing appears as an adjective in governing principle.
to regulateB2neutral /ˈrɛɡjəˌleɪt/ to control something by rules, or to keep it at a steady level Synonyms: control, keep steady, oversee	control by rules; keep steady	The gland regulates body temperature within a very narrow range.
Governments regulate banks by rule, while the body regulates its temperature by holding it steady, and both uses are standard. Regulation names a single rule and the whole activity alike. Deregulation means removing the rules and belongs mostly to economics.
to promptB2neutral /prɑmpt/ to cause something to happen, especially quickly Synonyms: cause, trigger, lead to	cause; trigger	The findings prompted a review of safety rules at every site.
Prompt a reaction, or prompt somebody 'to' DO something. The subject is usually an event or a discovery rather than a person. As an adjective it means quick and on time, which is why a prompt reply is a compliment.
to renderC1formal /ˈrɛndər/ to cause something to be in a particular state Synonyms: make, cause to be, leave	make; cause to be	A single missing page rendered the whole record useless for the study.
Render X plus an adjective is the pattern: render it useless, render it obsolete, render it invalid. Other senses include give formally, as in render assistance, and represent in art. Make is the plain alternative and is often the better one.
to elicitC1formal /ɪˈlɪsɪt/ to succeed in getting a response or information from someone Synonyms: draw out, obtain, bring out	draw out a response	The question elicited almost identical answers from every group tested.
Elicit a response, a reaction, information or an answer, and you elicit it 'from' a person. It sounds exactly like illicit, which means illegal, so the pair is worth checking when you proofread. The subject is usually a question or an event.
meansB2neutral /minz/ a method or thing used to achieve a result Synonyms: method, way, instrument	a method; a way	Language is the chief means by which the group keeps its identity alive.
The word is both singular and plural, so a means to an end is right and a mean is not. By means of introduces the method, while by all means gives permission. In the sense of money it takes a plural verb: her means are limited.
constraintC1formal /kənˈstreɪnt/ something that limits what can be done Synonyms: limit, restriction, limiting factor	a limit on action	Time was the main constraint on how many sites the team could visit.
A constraint 'on' something, and constraints are placed, imposed, eased and lifted. Budget, time and resource constraints are the standard trio in writing about projects. The verb constrain takes an object, and constrained can describe a budget or a voice.
to restrictB2neutral /rɪˈstrɪkt/ to limit the size, amount or range of something Synonyms: limit, confine, hold down	limit; narrow	The study restricted its sample to students under twenty-five years old.
Restrict X 'to' Y is the frame for narrowing a range, as in restricted to three cases. Restrictive describes a rule that limits freedom, and a restricted document is one few may read. Restrain is a different verb and means hold back physically.
restrictionB2neutral /rɪˈstrɪkʃən/ a rule or condition that limits what can be done Synonyms: limit, rule, control	a limiting rule	Restrictions on water use took effect in the second year of the drought.
A restriction 'on' something, and restrictions are imposed, tightened, eased and lifted. Without restriction means freely. The noun is countable, so one measure is a restriction while a whole policy is a set of restrictions.
prerequisiteC1formal /priˈrɛkwəzɪt/ something that must exist or be done before something else is possible Synonyms: requirement, precondition, must-have	something needed first	Basic statistics is a prerequisite for the second-year research course.
It says a thing is necessary without saying it is enough, a distinction that plain requirement often blurs. A prerequisite for or of something, and universities also use it for a course you must pass first. There is only one s in the spelling.
mandatoryB2formal /ˈmændəˌtɔri/ required by a rule or a law Synonyms: required, obligatory, compulsory	required by rule	Attendance at the first seminar is mandatory for all new students.
Mandatory 'for' somebody, and its opposite is voluntary or optional rather than illegal. A mandate is authority to act, so the two words share a root without sharing a sense. Compulsory means the same and is commoner in British writing.
obligationB2neutral /ˌɑbləˈɡeɪʃən/ something you must do because of a rule, promise or duty Synonyms: duty, requirement, commitment	a duty; something you must do	Signing the form creates a legal obligation to report every change.
An obligation 'to' DO something, and you are under an obligation rather than in one. Have no obligation to do something is the standard denial. The verb oblige is formal, and obliged can also mean grateful, as in much obliged.
to stipulateC1formal /ˈstɪpjəˌleɪt/ to state exactly what must be done as part of an agreement Synonyms: require, state, lay down	state as a condition	The grant stipulates that all data must be published within two years.
Stipulate that plus a clause is the usual pattern, and the subject is a document or a rule rather than a person. It is stronger than say, because a stipulation binds whoever signed. Contracts, grants and regulations stipulate, while a professor merely requests.
contingentC1formal /kənˈtɪndʒənt/ depending on something else that may or may not happen Synonyms: dependent, conditional, subject to	depending on something	Further funding is contingent on the results of the first year.
Contingent 'on' or 'upon' something, and contingent to is wrong. It says the outcome is genuinely unsettled, which makes it a stronger claim than merely related. The noun contingency is a possible future event, as in plan for every contingency.
to necessitateC1formal /nəˈsɛsəˌteɪt/ to make something necessary Synonyms: require, make necessary, force	make necessary	The rise in enrollment necessitated a second lecture hall on the north campus.
A noun or an -ing form follows it: necessitated a change, necessitated moving the deadline. Necessitate somebody to do something is wrong, since require does that job. The word is heavy, and require or force often reads better.
to interpretB2neutral /ɪnˈtɜrprɪt/ to explain the meaning of something, or to understand it in a particular way Synonyms: explain, read, make sense of	explain the meaning of	Two readers may interpret the same table in completely different ways.
It admits that more than one reading is possible, which makes it weaker than prove and more honest. Interpret X as Y when you give the reading you favor. An interpreter translates speech, and interpretation names the reading itself.
to construeC1formal /kənˈstru/ to understand words or actions in a particular way Synonyms: interpret, take, read	take to mean	Silence should not be construed as agreement with the committee's decision.
Nearly always passive, in be construed 'as' something, and usually inside a warning against the wrong reading. Misconstrue is the useful negative, as in the remark was misconstrued. Construe is narrower than interpret and applies mainly to words and behavior.
to deduceC1formal /dɪˈdus/ to reach a conclusion by reasoning from what is already known Synonyms: work out, conclude, reason out	work out by reasoning	From the ash layers we can deduce that the eruption lasted several days.
Deduce X 'from' Y is the frame. Deduction reasons from a general rule down to a particular case, so deducing is not the same as guessing well. Deduct is a different verb and means take an amount away.
inferenceC1formal /ˈɪnfərəns/ a conclusion reached from evidence rather than stated directly Synonyms: conclusion, deduction, reading	a conclusion from evidence	The inference that trade caused the growth goes well beyond these figures.
An inference is drawn 'from' evidence. The stress sits on the first syllable although the verb infer takes the second, /ɪnˈfɜr/. A writer implies and a reader infers, so the two verbs work from opposite sides of the page.
implicationB2neutral /ˌɪmpləˈkeɪʃən/ a result or meaning that follows without being stated Synonyms: consequence, suggestion, unstated meaning	an unstated consequence	The implications of this finding reach far beyond one industry.
The implications 'of' something are its consequences, while by implication means without being said outright. Keep the pair straight: a speaker implies and a listener infers. Implicate is a separate verb and means show to be involved in wrongdoing.
assumptionB2neutral /əˈsʌmpʃən/ something accepted as true without proof Synonyms: belief, supposition, starting point	something taken as true	The model rests on the assumption that prices adjust almost immediately.
On the assumption that plus a clause, and assumptions are made, questioned, tested and challenged. An underlying assumption is one nobody bothers to state. A second sense is taking on power or duty, as in the assumption of office.
to assumeB2neutral /əˈsum/ to accept something as true without checking, or to take on a duty Synonyms: suppose, take for granted, take on	take as true; take on	Let us assume for now that the two groups started at the same level.
Assume that plus a clause, and assuming that opens a condition. I assume so belongs to speech and is too casual for a paper. The other sense is take on, as in assume responsibility, and an assumed name is a false one.
conceivableC1formal /kənˈsivəbəl/ possible to imagine or believe Synonyms: imaginable, possible, thinkable	possible to imagine	It is conceivable that the effect disappears altogether in larger populations.
It claims only that something can be imagined, which is a far weaker claim than likely, so do not stack it on top of may or possibly. It is conceivable that plus a clause is the frame, and every conceivable option means all of them. The verb conceive means both imagine and become pregnant.
tendencyB2neutral /ˈtɛndənsi/ the usual way in which something behaves or develops Synonyms: inclination, habit, drift	a usual way of behaving	There is a tendency for early results to look stronger than later ones.
A tendency 'to' DO something, or a tendency 'for' something to happen, and both are standard. It reports what usually happens rather than what always does, so a tendency leaves room for exceptions. Tendentious shares the root but is not this noun's adjective: it means slanted toward one view.
likelihoodB2neutral /ˈlaɪkliˌhʊd/ the chance that something will happen Synonyms: chance, probability, odds	the chance of happening	The likelihood of error rises sharply when the sample is very small.
The likelihood 'of' something, or the likelihood 'that' it happens, and in all likelihood means very probably. Statistics uses likelihood as a technical term narrower than everyday chance. Increase, reduce and estimate are the verbs that surround it.
certaintyB2neutral /ˈsɜrtənti/ the state of being completely sure, or something sure to happen Synonyms: sureness, confidence, sure thing	being completely sure	We cannot say with any certainty which of the two causes came first.
With certainty follows a verb of speaking or knowing, as in state with certainty. It also works as a countable noun, where a certainty is an outcome nobody doubts. Certitude exists but sounds archaic in modern American prose.
uncertaintyB2neutral /ʌnˈsɜrtənti/ the state of not knowing something for sure Synonyms: doubt, unsureness, unpredictability	not knowing for sure	Considerable uncertainty remains about how long the effect actually lasts.
Science treats it as a measurable quantity rather than a feeling, so the uncertainty in a reading has a size and can be reported. Uncertainty about or over something. Uncountable for the general state, countable for particular unknowns: several uncertainties remain.
to revealB2neutral /rɪˈvil/ to make known something that was hidden Synonyms: show, uncover, make known	make known; uncover	The interviews revealed a level of confusion nobody had expected to find.
Reveal that plus a clause, or reveal a thing, and what is revealed was unknown before, which is what separates reveal from show. Revealing as an adjective means telling more than was intended. The noun is revelation.
to illustrateB2neutral /ˈɪləˌstreɪt/ to make something clear by giving an example Synonyms: show, demonstrate, exemplify	show by example	One case illustrates the problem better than any amount of argument could.
You illustrate a point with an example, or an example illustrates a point, so either can be the subject. In academic prose it means show clearly rather than draw pictures. Illustrative 'of' something is the adjective pattern.
to reflectB2neutral /rɪˈflɛkt/ to show or be a sign of a situation Synonyms: show, mirror, result from	show as a consequence	The rise in applications reflects wider changes in the job market.
Reflect 'on' something means think about it carefully, while reflect plus a direct object means show it, so the preposition decides the meaning. Reflect well or badly on somebody judges reputation. Reflective describes a thinking style as well as a surface.
to depictC1formal /dɪˈpɪkt/ to describe or show something in words or pictures Synonyms: describe, portray, present	describe; portray	The report depicts a system under strain in almost every region.
Depict X 'as' Y when a judgment is involved, as in the author depicts him as reckless. It suits pictures, novels and reports rather than numbers, so a table shows a trend and does not depict it. Depiction is the noun.
to discernC1formal /dɪˈsɜrn/ to notice or understand something that is not obvious Synonyms: make out, detect, notice	make out; detect	It is hard to discern any pattern in the first ten years of data.
Writers use it most in the negative or after hard to: hard to discern, no clear trend can be discerned. The sc in the middle is said as a simple /s/. Discerning as an adjective praises someone's judgment, especially about quality.
perceptionB2neutral /pərˈsɛpʃən/ the way something is understood or noticed Synonyms: view, impression, awareness	the way something is seen	Public perception of the risk changed faster than the science behind it did.
Perception 'of' something, and public perception is the commonest pairing by far. The noun covers both noticing through the senses and holding an opinion that may be wrong, and academic writing uses each. Perceptive means quick to notice.
cognitiveC1formal /ˈkɑɡnətɪv/ connected with thinking, learning and understanding Synonyms: mental, thinking, intellectual	to do with thinking	The test measures cognitive skills rather than knowledge of any one subject.
It attaches to a fixed set of nouns: cognitive skills, cognitive development, cognitive load, cognitive bias. The word belongs to psychology and education, so mental is the everyday choice. Cognition is the noun for thinking itself.
to comprehendC1formal /ˌkɑmprɪˈhɛnd/ to understand something completely Synonyms: understand, grasp, take in	understand fully	Few readers comprehend the whole argument on a first pass through it.
More formal than understand, and often paired with difficulty: hard to comprehend, cannot comprehend. Comprehension is the noun and the standard term for reading tests. Comprehensive shares the root but means complete, so it is not this verb's adjective.
competenceC1formal /ˈkɑmpətəns/ the ability to do something to an accepted standard Synonyms: ability, capability, proficiency	adequate ability	The course certifies basic competence, not expert skill in the field.
The word sets a floor rather than a ceiling, which is why calling a piece of work competent is faint praise. Competence in something, or competence at doing it. Competency is an alternative form, and job descriptions prefer it in the plural.
proficiencyC1formal /prəˈfɪʃənsi/ a good level of skill gained through training or practice Synonyms: skill, ability, command	a good level of skill	Language proficiency is tested before students join the exchange program.
Proficiency 'in' something, and language proficiency is close to a fixed phrase. It sits above competence and below mastery, which is why tests report it in levels rather than as a yes or no. Proficient is the adjective and also takes in.
to evaluateB2neutral /ɪˈvæljuˌeɪt/ to judge the value or quality of something carefully Synonyms: judge, assess, weigh up	judge the value of	The team evaluated three methods before choosing the cheapest one.
Evaluate a thing directly, with no preposition after it. It is a step more careful than judge, because evaluating means applying stated criteria rather than reacting. Evaluation names both the process and the written report it produces.
to rankB2neutral /ræŋk/ to put things in order according to quality, size or importance Synonyms: order, grade, place	put in order of quality	The table ranks twenty countries by their annual spending per student.
Rank things 'by' a measure, or rank X above or below Y, and the verb also works without an object: it ranks third. A ranking is the finished list and a rank is one position in it. Ranked as introduces a judgment.
salientC1formal /ˈseɪliənt/ most noticeable and most important Synonyms: key, most noticeable, prominent	most noticeable	The salient point is that nobody checked the original measurements.
It goes before a noun, almost always in the salient point, feature or fact. Salient means standing out from everything around it, so it marks what a reader should notice first. Salience is the noun and is frequent in psychology.
crucialB2neutral /ˈkruʃəl/ extremely important because everything else depends on it Synonyms: vital, decisive, essential	extremely important	The next six months are crucial to the future of the whole project.
Crucial 'to' or 'for' something. After crucial that, American English uses the bare subjunctive: it is crucial that the sample be random, where British writing often adds should. The word admits no degrees, so very crucial adds nothing. The image behind it is a crossroads.
vitalB2neutral /ˈvaɪtəl/ necessary for success, or necessary for life Synonyms: essential, crucial, necessary	necessary for success	Accurate records are vital to any study that lasts more than a year.
Interchangeable with crucial in most academic sentences; where they part, vital leans on need and crucial on the turning point. Vital to or for something, and vital that plus a clause. Medicine keeps the older sense of life itself in vital signs.
paramountC1formal /ˈpærəˌmaʊnt/ more important than anything else Synonyms: supreme, most important, overriding	above all others	In research of this kind the safety of participants is paramount.
It usually follows the verb, as in safety is paramount, and needs no preposition. Since it already means highest, more paramount is an error. Of paramount importance is the one common phrase where the word sits in front of a noun.
relevanceB2neutral /ˈrɛləvəns/ the quality of being connected with the matter being discussed Synonyms: connection, bearing, importance	connection to the matter	The relevance of these older studies to current practice is far from clear.
Relevance 'to' something, and relevance for is much rarer. Have no relevance to and of little relevance are the frequent negatives. Relevant takes the same preposition, and the opposite irrelevant is spelled with a double r.
to pertainC1formal /pərˈteɪn/ to be connected with a particular subject or situation Synonyms: relate, apply, concern	relate to; concern	Only the sections that pertain to funding were released to the press.
Pertain 'to' something is the only frame, and the subject is a document, rule or fact rather than a person. Pertaining to is a formal substitute for about and suits legal writing. Pertinent, the adjective, means directly relevant.
apparentB2neutral /əˈpærənt/ easy to see, or seeming to be true without being certain Synonyms: clear, obvious, seeming	clear; seeming	It soon became apparent that the two samples had been mixed together.
Two opposite pulls live in this one word: apparent can mean plainly true, as in it became apparent, or merely seeming, as in her apparent calm. Before a noun it usually means seeming; after become it usually means clear. Apparently leans toward seeming.
evidentB2formal /ˈɛvədənt/ easy to see or understand Synonyms: clear, obvious, plain	clear and certainly real	The strain on the system is evident in every table of the report.
Evident 'in' or 'from' something shows the reader where the proof lies. It is safer than apparent, which can also mean merely seeming, so evident always claims the thing is real. Self-evident needs no proof, and evidently means as anyone can see.
to regardB2neutral /rɪˈɡɑrd/ to think of someone or something in a particular way Synonyms: consider, view, see	consider; view as	Historians now regard the treaty as the real turning point of the century.
Regard X 'as' Y is the pattern, and dropping the as is the classic error, since regard X to be Y is not standard. As regards and with regard to both mean about, and each stays singular, so with regards to is wrong.
to deemC1formal /dim/ to consider something to be a certain way after judging it Synonyms: consider, judge, regard as	officially declare to be	Any answer over three hundred words was deemed too long to mark.
Deem takes an object plus an adjective or noun: deemed unsafe, deemed a success. The passive is far commoner and suits official decisions. Deem that plus a clause exists but sounds old-fashioned, and consider is the everyday choice.

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